Previous to WWII the uswas a distant second in science and engineering. By the point the battle was over, U.S. science and engineering had blown previous the British, and led the world for 85 years.
It occurred as a result of two very totally different folks had been the science advisors to their nation’s leaders. Every had radically totally different views on easy methods to use their nation’s sources to construct superior weapon programs. Publish battle, it meant Britain’s early lead was ephemeral whereas the U.S. constructed the inspiration for a science and know-how innovation ecosystem that led the world – till now.
The British – Army Weapons Labs
When Winston Churchill grew to become the British prime minister in 1940, he had at his facet his science advisor, Professor Frederick Lindemann, his buddy for 20 years. Lindemann headed up the physics division at Oxford and was the director of the Oxford Clarendon Laboratory. Already at battle with Germany, Britain’s wartime priorities centered on protection and intelligence know-how tasks, e.g. weapons that used electronics, radar, physics, and many others. – a radar-based air protection community referred to as Chain Dwelling, airborne radar on evening fighters, and plans for a nuclear weapons program – the MAUD Committee which began the British nuclear weapons program code-named Tube Alloys. And their codebreaking group at Bletchley Park was beginning to learn secret German messages – the Enigma – utilizing the earliest computer systems ever constructed.
As early because the mid Thirties, the British, fearing Nazi Germany, developed prototypes of those weapons utilizing their present navy and authorities analysis labs. The Telecommunications Analysis Institution constructed early-warning Radar, important to Britain’s survival in the course of the Battle of Britain, and digital warfare to guard British bombers over Germany. The Admiralty Analysis Lab constructed Sonar and anti-submarine warfare programs. The Royal Plane Institution was growing jet fighters. The labs then contracted with British firms to fabricate the weapons in quantity. British authorities labs seen their universities as a supply of expertise, however that they had no position in weapons growth.
Underneath Churchill, Professor Lindemann influenced which tasks obtained funding and which had been sidelined. Lindemann’s WWI expertise as a researcher and take a look at pilot on the workers of the Royal Plane Manufacturing facility at Farnborough gave him confidence within the competence of British navy analysis and growth labs. His top-down, centralized method with weapons growth primarily in authorities analysis labs formed British innovation throughout WW II – and led to its demise post-war.
The Individuals – College Weapons Labs
Not like Britain, the U.S. lacked a science advisor. It wasn’t till June 1940, that Vannevar Bush, ex-MIT dean of engineering, advised President Franklin Roosevelt that World Warfare II could be the primary battle received or misplaced on the premise of superior know-how electronics, radar, physics issues, and many others.
Not like Lindemann, Bush had a 20-year-long contentious historical past with the U.S. Navy and a dim view of government-led R&D. Bush contended that the federal government analysis labs had been sluggish and second price. He satisfied the President that whereas the Military and Navy must be accountable for making standard weapons – planes, ships, tanks, and many others. — scientists from academia might develop higher superior know-how weapons and ship them sooner than Military and Navy analysis labs. And he argued the one method the scientists could possibly be productive was in the event that they labored in a college setting in civilian-run weapons labs run by college professors. To the shock of the Military and Navy Service chiefs, Roosevelt agreed to let Bush construct precisely that group to coordinate and fund all superior weapons analysis.
(Whereas Bush had no prior relationship with the President, Roosevelt had been the Assistant Secretary of the Navy throughout World Warfare I and like Bush had seen first-hand its dysfunction. Over the following 4 years they labored properly collectively. Not like Churchill, Roosevelt had little curiosity in science and accepted Bush’s opinions on the course of U.S. know-how applications, giving Bush sweeping authority.)
In 1941, Bush upped the sport by convincing the President that along with analysis, growth, acquisition and deployment of those weapons additionally must be finished by professors in universities. There they’d be tasked to develop navy weapons programs and resolve navy issues to defeat Germany and Japan. (The weapons had been then manufactured in quantity by U.S. firms Western Electrical, GE, RCA, Dupont, Monsanto, Kodak, Zenith, Westinghouse, Remington Rand and Sylvania.) To do that Bush created the Workplace of Scientific Analysis and Growth (OSR&D).
OSR&D headquarters divided the wartime work into 19 “divisions,” 5 “committees,” and a pair of “panels,” every fixing a singular a part of the navy battle effort. There have been no formal necessities.
Employees at OSRD labored with their navy liaisons to grasp what an important navy issues had been after which every OSR&D division got here up with options. These efforts spanned an unlimited vary of duties – the event of superior electronics, radar, rockets, sonar, new weapons just like the proximity fuse, Napalm, the Bazooka and new medicine equivalent to penicillin, cures for malaria, chemical warfare, and nuclear weapons.
Every division was run by a professor hand-picked by Bush. They usually had been positioned in universities – MIT, Harvard, Johns Hopkins, Caltech, Columbia and the College of Chicago all ran main weapons programs applications. Almost 10,000 scientists and engineers, professors and their grad college students obtained draft deferments to work in these college labs.
Individuals – Limitless {Dollars}
What modified U.S. universities, and the world eternally, was authorities cash. Plenty of it. Previous to WWII most superior know-how analysis within the U.S. was finished in company innovation labs (GE, AT&T, Dupont, RCA, Westinghouse, NCR, Monsanto, Kodak, IBM, et al.) Universities had no authorities funding (aside from agriculture) for analysis. Educational analysis had been funded by non-profits, principally the Rockefeller and Carnegie foundations and {industry}. Now, for the primary time, U.S. universities had been getting extra money than that they had ever seen. Between 1941 and 1945, OSR&D gave $9 billion (in 2025 {dollars}) to the highest U.S. analysis universities. This made universities full companions in wartime analysis, not simply expertise swimming pools for presidency tasks as was the case in Britain.
The British – Wartime Constraints
Wartime Britain had very totally different constraints. First, England was below each day assault.
They had been being bombed by air and blockaded by submarines, so it was logical that they centered on a smaller set of high-priority tasks to counter these threats. Second, the nation was teetering on chapter. It couldn’t afford the broad and deep investments that the U.S. made. (Illustrated by their abandonment of their nuclear weapons applications after they realized how a lot it could price to show the analysis into industrial scale engineering.) This meant that many different areas of innovation—equivalent to early computing and nuclear analysis—had been underfunded in comparison with their American counterparts.
Publish Warfare – Britain
Churchill was voted out of workplace in 1945. With him went Professor Lindemann and the coordination of British science and engineering. Britain could be and not using a science advisor till 1951-55 when Churchill returned for a second time period and introduced again Lindemann with him.
The top of the battle led to excessive downsizing of the British navy together with extreme cuts to all the federal government labs that had developed Radar, electronics, computing, and many others.
With post-war Britain financially exhausted, post-war austerity restricted its capacity to spend money on large-scale innovation. There have been no post-war plans for presidency follow-on investments. The differing financial realities of the U.S. and Britain additionally performed a key position in shaping their innovation programs. The USA had an unlimited industrial base, ample capital, and a big home market, which enabled large-scale funding in analysis and growth. In Britain, a socialist authorities got here to energy. Churchill’s successor, Labor’s Clement Attlee, dissolved the British empire, nationalized banking, energy and lightweight, transport, and iron and metal, all which diminished competitors and slowed technological progress.
Whereas British analysis establishments like Cambridge and Oxford remained leaders in theoretical science, they struggled to scale and commercialize their breakthroughs. For example Alan Turing’s and Tommy Flower’s pioneering work on computing at Bletchley Park didn’t flip right into a thriving British computing {industry}—not like within the U.S., the place firms like ERA, Univac, NCR and IBM constructed on their wartime work.
With out the identical degree of presidency assist for dual-use applied sciences or commercialization, and with personal capital absent for brand new companies, Britain’s post-war innovation ecosystem by no means took off.
Publish Warfare – The U.S.
In the meantime within the U.S. universities and firms realized that the wartime authorities funding for analysis had been an incredible accelerator for science, engineering, and drugs. Everybody, together with Congress, agreed that the U.S. authorities ought to proceed to play a big position in persevering with it. In 1945, Vannevar Bush revealed a report “Science, The Infinite Frontier” advocating for presidency funding of primary analysis in universities, schools, and analysis institutes. Congress argued on easy methods to greatest arrange federal assist of science.
By the tip of the battle, OSR&D funding had taken applied sciences that had been simply analysis papers or thought of inconceivable to construct at scale and made them commercially viable – computer systems, rockets, radar, Teflon, artificial fibers, nuclear energy, and many others. Innovation clusters shaped round universities like MIT and Harvard which had obtained giant quantities of OSR&D funding (MIT’s Radiation Lab or “Rad Lab” employed 3,500 civilians throughout WWII and developed and constructed 100 radar programs deployed in theater,) or round professors who ran one of many OSR&D divisions – like Fred Terman at Stanford.
When the battle ended, the Atomic Vitality Fee spun out of the Manhattan Undertaking in 1946 and the navy providers took again superior weapons growth. In 1950 Congress arrange the Nationwide Science Basis to fund all primary science within the U.S. (aside from Life Sciences, a job the brand new Nationwide Institutes of Well being would assume.) Eight years later DARPA and NASA would additionally type as federal analysis companies.
Sarcastically, Vannevar Bush’s affect would decline even sooner than Professor Lindemann’s. When President Roosevelt died in April 1945 and Secretary of Warfare Stimson retired in September 1945, all of the knives got here out from the navy management Bush had bypassed within the battle. His arguments on easy methods to reorganize OSR&D made extra enemies in Congress. By 1948 Bush had retired from authorities service. He would by no means once more play a job within the U.S. authorities.
Divergent Legacies
Britain’s centered, centralized mannequin utilizing authorities analysis labs was created in a battle for short-term survival. They achieved sensible breakthroughs however lacked the size, integration and capital wanted to dominate within the post-war world.
The U.S. constructed a decentralized, collaborative ecosystem, one which tightly built-in huge authorities funding of universities for analysis and prototypes whereas personal {industry} constructed the options in quantity.
A key part of this U.S. analysis ecosystem was the genius of the oblique price reimbursement system. Not solely did the U.S. fund researchers in universities by paying the price of their salaries, the U.S. gave universities cash for the researchers amenities and administration. This was the key sauce that allowed U.S. universities to construct world-class labs for cutting-edge analysis that had been the envy of the world. Scientists flocked to the U.S. inflicting different international locations to complain of a “mind drain.”
Right this moment, U.S. universities license 3,000 patents, 3,200 copyrights and 1,600 different licenses to know-how startups and present firms. Collectively, they spin out over 1,100 science-based startups every year, which result in numerous merchandise and tens of hundreds of recent jobs. This college/authorities ecosystem grew to become the blueprint for contemporary innovation ecosystems for different international locations.
Abstract
By the tip of the battle, the U.S. and British innovation programs had produced radically totally different outcomes. Each programs had been influenced by the expertise and personalities of their nations science advisor.
- Britain remained a frontrunner in theoretical science and protection know-how, however its socialist authorities financial insurance policies led to its failure to commercialize wartime improvements.
- The U.S. emerged as the worldwide chief in science and know-how, with improvements like electronics, microwaves, computing, and nuclear energy driving its post-war financial growth.
- The university-industry-government partnership grew to become the inspiration of Silicon Valley, the aerospace sector, and the biotechnology {industry}.
- Right this moment, China’s management has spent the final three a long time investing closely to surpass the U.S. in science and know-how.
- In 2025, with the abandonment of U.S. authorities assist for college analysis, the long term of U.S. dominance in science could also be over. Others will lead.
Filed below: Science and Industrial Coverage |